U.S. Culture

championship series. The winner is awarded the Stanley Cup, the league’s

top prize.

Television transformed sports in the second half of the 20th century. As

more Americans watched sports on television, the sports industry grew into

an enormous business, and sports events became widely viewed among

Americans as cultural experiences. Many Americans shared televised moments

of exaltation and triumph throughout the year: baseball during the spring

and summer and its World Series in the early fall, football throughout the

fall crowned by the Super Bowl in January, and the National Basketball

Association (NBA) championships in the spring. The Olympic Games, watched

by millions of people worldwide, similarly rivet Americans to their

televisions as they watch outstanding athletes compete on behalf of their

nations. Commercial sports are part of practically every home in America

and have allowed sports heroes to gain prominence in the national

imagination and to become fixtures of the consumer culture. As well-known

faces and bodies, sports celebrities such as basketball player Michael

Jordan and baseball player Mark McGwire are hired to endorse products.

Although televised games remove the viewing public from direct contact

with events, they have neither diminished the fervor of team

identification nor dampened the enthusiasm for athletic participation.

Americans watch more sports on television than ever, and they personally

participate in more varied sporting activities and athletic clubs.

Millions of young girls and boys across the country play soccer, baseball,

tennis, and field hockey.

At the end of the 20th century, Americans were taking part in individual

sports of all kinds—jogging, bicycling, swimming, skiing, rock climbing,

playing tennis, as well as more unusual sports such as bungee jumping,

hang gliding, and wind surfing. As Americans enjoy more leisure time, and

as Hollywood and advertising emphasize trim, well-developed bodies, sports

have become a significant component of many people's lives. Many Americans

now invest significant amounts of money in sports equipment, clothing, and

gym memberships. As a result, more people are dressing in sporty styles of

clothing. Sports logos and athletic fashions have become common aspects of

people’s wardrobes, as people need to look as though they participate in

sports to be in style. Sports have even influenced the cars Americans

drive, as sport utility vehicles accommodate the rugged terrain, elaborate

equipment, and sporty lifestyles of their owners.

Probably the most significant long-term development in 20th-century sports

has been the increased participation of minorities and women. Throughout

the early 20th century, African Americans made outstanding contributions

to sports, despite being excluded from organized white teams. The

exclusion of black players from white baseball led to the creation of a

separate Negro National League in 1920. On the world stage, track-and-

field star Jessie Owens became a national hero when he won four gold

medals and set world and Olympic records at the Berlin Olympics in 1936.

The racial segregation that prevented African Americans from playing

baseball in the National League until 1947 has been replaced by the

enormous successes of African Americans in all fields of sport.

Before the 20th century women could not play in most organized sports.

Soon, however, they began to enter the sports arena. Helen Wills Moody, a

tennis champion during the 1920s, and Babe Didrikson Zaharias, one of the

20th century’s greatest women athletes, were examples of physical grace

and agility. In 1972 Title IX of the Education Amendments Act outlawed

discrimination based on gender in education, including school sports.

Schools then spent additional funding on women's athletics, which provided

an enormous boost to women’s sports of all kinds, especially basketball,

which became very popular. Women's college basketball, part of the

National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), is a popular focus of

interest. By the end of the 20th century, this enthusiasm led to the

creation of a major professional women’s basketball league. Women have

become a large part of athletics, making their mark in a wide range of

sports.

Sports have become one of the most visible expressions of the vast

extension of democracy in 20th-century America. They have become more

inclusive, with many Americans both personally participating and enjoying

sports as spectators. Once readily available only to the well-to-do,

sports and recreation attract many people, aided by the mass media, the

schools and colleges, the federal and state highway and park systems, and

increased leisure time.

Celebrations and Holidays

Americans celebrate an enormous variety of festivals and holidays because

they come from around the globe and practice many religions. They also

celebrate holidays specific to the United States that commemorate

historical events or encourage a common national memory. Holidays in

America are often family or community events. Many Americans travel long

distances for family gatherings or take vacations during holidays. In

fact, by the end of the 20th century, many national holidays in the United

States had become three-day weekends, which many people used as mini

vacations. Except for the Fourth of July and Veterans Day, most

commemorative federal holidays, including Memorial Day, Labor Day,

Columbus Day, and Presidents’ Day, are celebrated on Mondays so that

Americans can enjoy a long weekend. Because many Americans tend to create

vacations out of these holiday weekends rather than celebrate a particular

event, some people believe the original significance of many of these

occasions has been eroded.

Because the United States is a secular society founded on the separation

of church and state, many of the most meaningful religiously based

festivals and rituals, such as Easter, Rosh Hashanah, and Ramadan, are not

enshrined as national events, with one major exception. Christmas, and the

holiday season surrounding it, is an enormous commercial enterprise, a

fixture of the American social calendar, and deeply embedded in the

popular imagination. Not until the 19th century did Christmas in the

United States begin to take on aspects of the modern holiday celebration,

such as exchanging gifts, cooking and eating traditional foods, and

putting up often-elaborate Christmas decorations. The holiday has grown in

popularity and significance ever since. Santa Claus; brightly decorated

Christmas trees; and plenty of wreathes, holly, and ribbons help define

the season for most children. Indeed, because some religious faiths do not

celebrate Christmas, the Christmas season has expanded in recent years to

become the “holiday season,” embracing Hanukkah, the Jewish Festival of

Lights, and Kwanzaa, a celebration of African heritage. Thus, the

Christmas season has become the closest thing to a true national festival

in the United States.

The expansion of Christmas has even begun to encroach on the most

indigenous of American festivals, Thanksgiving. Celebrated on the last

Thursday in November, Thanksgiving has largely shed its original religious

meaning (as a feast of giving thanks to God) to become a celebration of

the bounty of food and the warmth of family life in America. American

children usually commemorate the holiday’s origins at school, where they

re-create the original event: Pilgrims sharing a harvest feast with Native

Americans. Both the historical and the religious origins of the event have

largely given way to a secular celebration centered on the traditional

Thanksgiving meal: turkey—an indigenous American bird—accompanied by foods

common in early New England settlements, such as pumpkins, squashes, and

cranberries. Since many Americans enjoy a four-day holiday at

Thanksgiving, the occasion encourages family reunions and travel. Some

Americans also contribute time and food to the needy and the homeless

during the Thanksgiving holiday.

Another holiday that has lost its older, religious meaning in the United

States is Halloween, the eve of All Saints’ Day. Halloween has become a

celebration of witches, ghosts, goblins, and candy that is especially

attractive to children. On this day and night, October 31, many homes are

decorated and lit by jack-o'-lanterns, pumpkins that have been hollowed

out and carved. Children dress up and go trick-or-treating, during which

they receive treats from neighbors. An array of orange-colored candies has

evolved from this event, and most trick-or-treat bags usually brim with

chocolate bars and other confections.

The Fourth of July, or Independence Day, is the premier American national

celebration because it commemorates the day the United States proclaimed

its freedom from Britain with the Declaration of Independence. Very early

in its development, the holiday was an occasion for fanfare, parades, and

speeches celebrating American freedom and the uniqueness of American life.

Since at least the 19th century, Americans have commemorated their

independence with fireworks and patriotic music. Because the holiday marks

the founding of the republic in 1776, flying the flag of the United States

(sometimes with the original 13 stars) is common, as are festive

barbecues, picnics, fireworks, and summer outings.

Most other national holidays have become less significant over time and

receded in importance as ways in which Americans define themselves and

their history. For example, Columbus Day was formerly celebrated on

October 12, the day explorer Christopher Columbus first landed in the West

Indies, but it is now celebrated on the second Monday of October to allow

for a three-day weekend. The holiday originally served as a traditional

reminder of the "discovery" of America in 1492, but as Americans became

more sensitive to their multicultural population, celebrating the conquest

of Native Americans became more controversial.

Holidays honoring wars have also lost much of their original significance.

Memorial Day, first called Decoration Day and celebrated on May 30, was

established to honor those who died during the American Civil War (1861-

1865), then subsequently those who died in all American wars. Similarly,

Veterans Day was first named Armistice Day and marked the end of World War

I (1914-1918). During the 1950s the name of the holiday was changed in the

United States, and its significance expanded to honor armed forces

personnel who served in any American war.

The memory of America's first president, George Washington, was once

celebrated on his birthday, February 22nd. The date was changed to the

third Monday in February to create a three-day weekend, as well as to

incorporate the birthday of another president, Abraham Lincoln, who was

born on February 12th. The holiday is now popularly called Presidents’ Day

and is less likely to be remembered as honoring the first and 16th

American presidents than as a school and work holiday. Americans also

memorialize Martin Luther King, Jr., the great African American civil

rights leader who was assassinated in 1968. King’s birthday is celebrated

as a national holiday in mid-January. The celebration of King's birthday

has become a sign of greater inclusiveness in 20th-century American

society.

EDUCATION

Role of Education

The United States has one of the most extensive and diverse educational

systems in the world. Educational institutions exist at all learning

levels, from nursery schools for the very young to higher education for

older youths and adults of all ages. Education in the United States is

notable for the many goals it aspires to accomplish—promoting democracy,

assimilation, nationalism, equality of opportunity, and personal

development. Because Americans have historically insisted that their

schools work toward these sometimes conflicting goals, education has often

been the focus of social conflict.

While schools are expected to achieve many social objectives, education in

America is neither centrally administered nor supported directly by the

federal government, unlike education in other industrialized countries. In

the United States, each state is responsible for providing schooling,

which is funded through local taxes and governed by local school boards.

In addition to these government-funded public schools, the United States

has many schools that are privately financed and maintained. More than 10

percent of all elementary and secondary students in the United States

attend private schools. Religious groups, especially the Roman Catholic

Church, run many of these. Many of America's most renowned universities

and colleges are also privately endowed and run. As a result, although

American education is expected to provide equality of opportunity, it is

not easily directed toward these goals. This complex enterprise, once one

of the proudest achievements of American democracy because of its

diversity and inclusiveness, became the subject of intense debate and

criticism during the second half of the 20th century. People debated the

goals of schools as well as whether schools were educating students well

enough.

History of Education in America

Until the 1830s, most American children attended school irregularly, and

most schools were either run privately or by charities. This irregular

system was replaced in the Northeast and Midwest by publicly financed

elementary schools, known as common schools. Common schools provided

rudimentary instruction in literacy and trained students in citizenship.

This democratic ideal expanded after the Civil War to all parts of the

nation. By the 1880s and 1890s, schools began to expand attendance

requirements so that more children and older children attended school

regularly. These more rigorous requirements were intended to ensure that

all students, including those whose families had immigrated from

elsewhere, were integrated into society. In addition, the schools tried to

equip children with the more complex skills required in an industrialized

urban society.

Education became increasingly important during the 20th century, as

America’s sophisticated industrial society demanded a more literate and

skilled workforce. In addition, school degrees provided a sought-after

means to obtain better-paying and higher-status jobs. Schools were the one

American institution that could provide the literate skills and work

habits necessary for Americans of all backgrounds to compete in

industries. As a result, education expanded rapidly. In the first decades

of the 20th century, mandatory education laws required children to

complete grade school. By the end of the 20th century, many states

required children to attend school until they were at least 16. In 1960,

45 percent of high school graduates enrolled in college; by 1996 that

enrollment rate had risen to 65 percent. By the late 20th century, an

advanced education was necessary for success in the globally competitive

and technologically advanced modern economy. According to the U.S. Census

Bureau, workers with a bachelor’s degree in 1997 earned an average of

$40,000 annually, while those with a high school degree earned about

$23,000. Those who did not complete high school earned about $16,000.

In the United States, higher education is widely available and obtainable

through thousands of private, religious, and state-run institutions, which

offer advanced professional, scientific, and other training programs that

enable students to become proficient in diverse subjects. Colleges vary in

cost and level of prestige. Many of the oldest and most famous colleges on

the East Coast are expensive and set extremely high admissions standards.

Large state universities are less difficult to enter, and their fees are

substantially lower. Other types of institutions include state

universities that provide engineering, teaching, and agriculture degrees;

private universities and small privately endowed colleges; religious

colleges and universities; and community and junior colleges that offer

part-time and two-year degree programs. This complex and diverse range of

schools has made American higher education the envy of other countries and

one of the nation’s greatest assets in creating and maintaining a

technologically advanced society.

When more people began to attend college, there were a number of

repercussions. Going to college delayed maturity and independence for many

Americans, extending many of the stresses of adolescence into a person’s

20s and postponing the rites of adulthood, such as marriage and

childbearing. As society paid more attention to education, it also devoted

a greater proportion of its resources to it. Local communities were

required to spend more money on schools and teachers, while colleges and

universities were driven to expand their facilities and course offerings

to accommodate an ever-growing student body. Parents were also expected to

support their children longer and to forgo their children's contribution

to the household.

Funding

Education is an enormous investment that requires contributions from many

sources. American higher education is especially expensive, with its heavy

investment in laboratory space and research equipment. It receives funding

from private individuals, foundations, and corporations. Many private

universities have large endowments, or funds, that sustain the

institutions beyond what students pay in tuition and fees. Many, such as

Harvard University in Massachusetts and Stanford University in California,

raise large sums of money through fund drives. Even many state-funded

universities seek funds from private sources to augment their budgets.

Most major state universities, such as those in Michigan and California,

now rely on a mixture of state and private resources.

Before World War II, the federal government generally played a minor role

in financing education, with the exception of the Morrill Acts of 1862 and

1890. These acts granted the states public lands that could be sold for

the purpose of establishing and maintaining institutions of higher

education. Many so-called land-grant state universities were founded

during the 19th century as a result of this funding. Today, land-grant

colleges include some of the nation’s premier state universities. The

government also provided some funding for basic research at universities.

The American experience in World War II (especially the success of the

Manhattan Project, which created the atomic bomb) made clear that

scientific and technical advances, as well as human resources, were

essential to national security. As a result, the federal government became

increasingly involved in education at all levels and substantially

expanded funding for universities. The federal government began to provide

substantial amounts of money for university research programs through

agencies such as the National Science Foundation, and later through the

National Institutes of Health and the departments of Energy and Defense.

At the same time, the government began to focus on providing equal

educational opportunities for all Americans. Beginning with the GI Bill,

which financed educational programs for veterans, and later in the form of

fellowships and direct student loans in the 1960s, more and more Americans

were able to attend colleges and universities.

During the 1960s the federal government also began to play more of a role

in education at lower levels. The Great Society programs of President

Lyndon Johnson developed many new educational initiatives to assist poor

children and to compensate for disadvantage. Federal money was funneled

through educational institutions to establish programs such as Head Start,

which provides early childhood education to disadvantaged children. Some

Americans, however, resisted the federal government’s increased presence

in education, which they believed contradicted the long tradition of state-

sponsored public schooling.

By the 1980s many public schools were receiving federal subsidies for

textbooks, transportation, breakfast and lunch programs, and services for

students with disabilities. This funding enriched schools across the

country, especially inner-city schools, and affected the lives of millions

of schoolchildren. Although federal funding increased, as did federal

supervision, to guarantee an equitable distribution of funds, the

government did not exercise direct control over the academic programs

schools offered or over decisions about academic issues. During the 1990s,

the administration of President Bill Clinton urged the federal government

to move further in exercising leadership by establishing academic

standards for public schools across the country and to evaluate schools

through testing.

Concerns in Elementary Education

The United States has historically contended with the challenges that come

with being a nation of immigrants. Schools are often responsible for

modifying educational offerings to accommodate immigrants. Early schools

reflected many differences among students and their families but were also

a mechanism by which to overcome these differences and to forge a sense of

American commonality. Common schools, or publicly financed elementary

schools, were first introduced in the mid-19th century in the hopes of

creating a common bond among a diverse citizenship. By the early 20th

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